SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Fallacy of composition</title>

</head>

<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Fallacy of composition</span></span>

</h1>

</header>

<p>

The <b>fallacy of composition</b> is an <a href="Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">informal fallacy</a> that arises when one <a href="Inference" title="Inference">infers</a> that something is true of the whole from the fact that it is true of some part of the whole. A trivial example might be: "This tire is made of rubber; therefore, the vehicle of which it is a part is also made of rubber." That is fallacious, because vehicles are made with a variety of parts, most of which are not made of rubber. The fallacy of composition can apply even when a fact is true of every <a href="Proper_part" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper part">proper part</a> of a greater entity, though. A more complicated example might be: "No <a href="Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a> are <a href="Life" title="Life">alive</a>. Therefore, nothing made of atoms is alive." This is a statement most people would consider incorrect, due to <a href="Emergence" title="Emergence">emergence</a>, where the whole possesses properties not present in any of the parts.

</p><p>The <a href="Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacy</a> of composition is related to the fallacy of <a href="Hasty_generalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasty generalization">hasty generalization</a>, in which an unwarranted inference is made from a statement about a sample to a statement about the population from which the sample is drawn. The fallacy of composition is the <a href="Converse_(logic)" title="Converse (logic)">converse</a> of the <a href="Fallacy_of_division" title="Fallacy of division">fallacy of division</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>'s example in the <a href="Copleston%E2%80%93Russell_debate" title="Copleston–Russell debate">Copleston–Russell debate</a>: "Every man who exists has a mother... therefore the human race must have a mother".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was intended to illustrate how <a href="Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">cosmological arguments</a> for God's existence (specifically <a href="Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Frederick Copleston</a>'s) commit the fallacy by assuming that the universe itself requires a cause or an explanation for its existence just because everything in the universe does.</li>

<li>"If someone stands up from their seat at a <a href="Cricket" title="Cricket">cricket</a> match, they can see better. Therefore, if everyone stands up, they can all see better."</li>

<li>"Every brick in the wall is rectangular-cuboid-shaped. Therefore, the whole wall is rectangular-cuboid-shaped." (see picture)</li>

<li>"Some people can become millionaires with the right business concept. Therefore, if everyone has the right business concept, everyone will become a millionaire."</li>

<li>"If a runner runs faster, that runner can win the race. Therefore, if all the runners run faster, they can all win the race."</li>

<li>"Since every part of a certain machine is light in weight, the machine as a whole is light in weight."<sup id="cite_ref-fall_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fall-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>In the economics of education, Bryan Caplan explains <a href="Educational_inflation" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational inflation">Credential inflation or degree inflation</a> using the fallacy of composition: "If one person gets a college degree, that person looks more appealing in the labor market. If everyone gets a college degree, everyone will look more appealing in the labor market." (<a href="The_Case_Against_Education" title="The Case Against Education">The Case Against Education</a>)</li>

<li>In <a href="Voting_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting theory">voting theory</a>, the <a href="Condorcet_paradox" title="Condorcet paradox">Condorcet paradox</a> demonstrates a fallacy of composition: Even if all voters have rational <a href="Preferences" class="mw-redirect" title="Preferences">preferences</a>, the collective choice induced by <a href="Majority_rule" title="Majority rule">majority rule</a> is not transitive and hence not rational. The fallacy of composition occurs if from the rationality of the individuals one infers that society can be equally rational. The principle generalizes beyond the aggregation via majority rule to any reasonable aggregation rule, demonstrating that the aggregation of individual preferences into a <a href="Social_welfare_function" title="Social welfare function">social welfare function</a> is fraught with severe difficulties (see <a href="Arrow's_impossibility_theorem" title="Arrow's impossibility theorem">Arrow's impossibility theorem</a> and <a href="Social_choice_theory" title="Social choice theory">social choice theory</a>).</li>

<li>In <a href="Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> and <a href="Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>, a single type of <a href="Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> may form <a href="Allotropy" title="Allotropy">allotropes</a> with different physical properties from each other, and from their individual constituent atoms, such as <a href="Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> and <a href="Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> each consisting of <a href="Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> atoms. What is true of a single carbon atom is not true of a collection of carbon atoms bonded into a material. Furthermore, the properties of an atom differ from the properties of the individual <a href="Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a> that constitute it.</li>

<li>In <a href="Social_network" title="Social network">social network</a> theory, a group of humans arranged into a social network can have abilities not possessed by the individual humans making up the network.<sup id="cite_ref-Christakis_Fowler_2009_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christakis_Fowler_2009-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A simple example is the <a href="Bucket_brigade" title="Bucket brigade">bucket brigade</a>, in which humans arranged into a chain can move buckets of water or other similar items across a distance faster and with less effort than can a disorganized group of individuals carrying the loads across the same distance. What is true of the part (an individual needing to move his or her body across the whole distance to move a load) is not true of the whole (in which individuals can move loads across the distance merely by standing in place and handing off the load to the next individual).</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_economics">In economics</h3></div>

<ul><li>The <a href="Paradox_of_thrift" title="Paradox of thrift">paradox of thrift</a> is a notable fallacy of composition described by <a href="Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">Division of labour</a> is another economic example, in which overall productivity can greatly increase when individual workers specialize in doing different jobs. An individual worker may become more productive by specializing in making, say, <a href="Hatpin" title="Hatpin">hatpins</a>, but by satisfying the wants of many other individuals for a given product, the specialist worker forces other workers to specialize in making different things. What is true for the part (earning more by investing in the skills or equipment to make a given product faster) is not true for the whole (because not everybody can profitably make the same product).</li>

<li>In a <a href="Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of the commons</a>, an individual can profit by consuming a larger share of a common, shared resource such as fish from the sea; but if too many individuals seek to consume more, they can destroy the resource.<sup id="cite_ref-Pigliucci_2012_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pigliucci_2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li>In the <a href="Free_rider_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Free rider problem">free rider problem</a>, an individual can benefit by failing to pay when consuming a share of a public good; but if there are too many such "free riders", eventually there will be no "ride" for anyone.<sup id="cite_ref-Pigliucci_2012_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pigliucci_2012-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modo_hoc_fallacy"><i>Modo hoc</i> fallacy</h2></div>

<p>The <i>modo hoc</i> (or "just this") fallacy is the informal error of assessing meaning to an existent based on the constituent properties of its <a href="Matter" title="Matter">material makeup</a> while omitting the matter's arrangement.<sup id="cite_ref-Carrier_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carrier-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, <a href="Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">metaphysical naturalism</a> states that while matter and <a href="Motion_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion (physics)">motion</a> are all that compose <a href="Human" title="Human">humans</a>, it cannot be assumed that the characteristics inherent in the elements and physical reactions that make us up ultimately and solely define our meaning; for, a cow which is alive and well and a cow which has been chopped up into meat are the same matter but it is obvious that the <i>arrangement</i> of that matter clarifies those different situational meanings.<sup id="cite_ref-Carrier_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carrier-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Association_fallacy" title="Association fallacy">Association fallacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a> – Unpredictable phenomenon in complex systems</li>

<li><a href="Interaction_(statistics)" title="Interaction (statistics)">Interaction (statistics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Synecdoche" title="Synecdoche">Synecdoche</a>, the figure of speech of two forms:

<ul><li><i><a href="Pars_pro_toto" title="Pars pro toto">Pars pro toto</a></i> using the word for a part by way of referring to the whole</li>

<li><i><a href="Totum_pro_parte" title="Totum pro parte">Totum pro parte</a></i> using the word for the whole by way of referring to a part</li></ul></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scandalon.co.uk/philosophy/cosmological_radio.htm">"Transcript of the 1948 Russell-Copleston debate"</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-fall-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fall_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maurice A. Finocchiaro. Journal of Applied Logic Volume 13, Issue 2, Part B, June 2015, Pages 24-43, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S157086831500004X">The fallacy of composition: Guiding concepts, historical cases, and research problems</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Christakis_Fowler_2009-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Christakis_Fowler_2009_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFChristakisFowler2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Nicholas_A._Christakis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas A. Christakis">Christakis, Nicholas A.</a>; <a href="James_H._Fowler" title="James H. Fowler">Fowler, James H.</a> (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/connectedsurpris00chri"><i>Connected: The Surprising Power of Our Social Networks and How They Shape Our Lives</i></a></span>. Little, Brown and Co. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0316036146</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Pigliucci_2012-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pigliucci_2012_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pigliucci_2012_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPigliucci2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Massimo_Pigliucci" title="Massimo Pigliucci">Pigliucci, Massimo</a> (2012). "Chapter 15: On Justice". <i>Answers for Aristotle: How Science and Philosophy Can Lead Us to A More Meaningful Life</i>. Basic Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0465021383</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Carrier-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Carrier_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Carrier_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCarrier2005" class="citation book cs1">Carrier, Richard (2005). <i>Sense and Goodness Without God: A Defense of Metaphysical Naturalism</i>. Prometheus Books. p. 130. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-4208-0293-3</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Common_fallacies_(list)222" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div id="Common_fallacies_(list)222" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Common <a href="Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacies</a> (<a href="List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Formal_fallacy" title="Formal fallacy">Formal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="Propositional_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Propositional calculus">propositional logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Affirming_a_disjunct" title="Affirming a disjunct">Affirming a disjunct</a></li>

<li><a href="Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Affirming the consequent</a></li>

<li><a href="Denying_the_antecedent" title="Denying the antecedent">Denying the antecedent</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_fallacy" title="Argument from fallacy">Argument from fallacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Masked-man_fallacy" title="Masked-man fallacy">Masked man</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_fallacy" title="Mathematical fallacy">Mathematical fallacy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="Quantifier_(logic)" title="Quantifier (logic)">quantificational logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li>

<li><a href="Affirming_the_consequent" title="Affirming the consequent">Illicit conversion</a></li>

<li><a href="Proof_by_example" title="Proof by example">Proof by example</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantifier_shift" title="Quantifier shift">Quantifier shift</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Syllogistic_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllogistic fallacy">Syllogistic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Affirmative_conclusion_from_a_negative_premise" title="Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise">Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise</a></li>

<li><a href="Negative_conclusion_from_affirmative_premises" title="Negative conclusion from affirmative premises">Negative conclusion from affirmative premises</a></li>

<li><a href="Fallacy_of_exclusive_premises" title="Fallacy of exclusive premises">Exclusive premises</a></li>

<li><a href="Existential_fallacy" title="Existential fallacy">Existential</a></li>

<li><a href="Modal_scope_fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Modal scope fallacy">Necessity</a></li>

<li><a href="Fallacy_of_four_terms" title="Fallacy of four terms">Four terms</a></li>

<li><a href="Illicit_major" title="Illicit major">Illicit major</a></li>

<li><a href="Illicit_minor" title="Illicit minor">Illicit minor</a></li>

<li><a href="Fallacy_of_the_undistributed_middle" title="Fallacy of the undistributed middle">Undistributed middle</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equivocation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Equivocation" title="Equivocation">Equivocation</a></li>

<li><a href="False_equivalence" title="False equivalence">False equivalence</a></li>

<li><a href="False_attribution" title="False attribution">False attribution</a></li>

<li><a href="Moral_equivalence" title="Moral equivalence">Moral equivalence</a></li>

<li><a href="Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li>

<li><a href="Loki's_Wager" class="mw-redirect" title="Loki's Wager">Loki's Wager</a></li>

<li><a href="No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li>

<li><a href="Reification_(fallacy)" title="Reification (fallacy)">Reification</a>

<ul><li><a href="Map%E2%80%93territory_relation" title="Map–territory relation">Map–territory relation</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Question-begging</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Circular_reasoning" title="Circular reasoning">Circular reasoning</a> / <a href="Begging_the_question" title="Begging the question">Begging the question</a></li>

<li><a href="Loaded_language" title="Loaded language">Loaded language</a>

<ul><li><a href="Leading_question" title="Leading question">Leading question</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Double-barreled_question" title="Double-barreled question">Compound question</a> / <a href="Loaded_question" title="Loaded question">Loaded question</a> / <a href="Complex_question" title="Complex question">Complex question</a></li>

<li><a href="No_true_Scotsman" title="No true Scotsman">No true Scotsman</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Correlative-based_fallacies" title="Correlative-based fallacies">Correlative-based</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a>

<ul><li><a href="Nirvana_fallacy" title="Nirvana fallacy">Perfect solution</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Denying_the_correlative" title="Denying the correlative">Denying the correlative</a></li>

<li><a href="Suppressed_correlative" title="Suppressed correlative">Suppressed correlative</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Fallacies_of_illicit_transference" title="Fallacies of illicit transference">Illicit transference</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Fallacy_of_division" title="Fallacy of division">Division</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_fallacy" title="Ecological fallacy">Ecological</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="Secundum_quid" title="Secundum quid">Secundum quid</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Accident_(fallacy)" title="Accident (fallacy)">Accident</a></li>

<li><a href="Converse_accident" title="Converse accident">Converse accident</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Faulty_generalization" title="Faulty generalization">Faulty generalization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">Anecdotal evidence</a></li>

<li><a href="Sampling_bias" title="Sampling bias">Sampling bias</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">Cherry picking</a></li>

<li><a href="McNamara_fallacy" title="McNamara fallacy">McNamara</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Base_rate_fallacy" title="Base rate fallacy">Base rate</a> / <a href="Conjunction_fallacy" title="Conjunction fallacy">Conjunction</a></li>

<li><a href="Double_counting_(fallacy)" title="Double counting (fallacy)">Double counting</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_analogy" title="Argument from analogy">False analogy</a></li>

<li><a href="Slothful_induction" title="Slothful induction">Slothful induction</a></li>

<li><a href="Overwhelming_exception" title="Overwhelming exception">Overwhelming exception</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fallacy_of_accent" title="Fallacy of accent">Accent</a></li>

<li><a href="False_precision" title="False precision">False precision</a></li>

<li><a href="Moving_the_goalposts" title="Moving the goalposts">Moving the goalposts</a></li>

<li><a href="Quoting_out_of_context" title="Quoting out of context">Quoting out of context</a></li>

<li><a href="Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li>

<li><a href="Sorites_paradox" title="Sorites paradox">Sorites paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Syntactic_ambiguity" title="Syntactic ambiguity">Syntactic ambiguity</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animistic_fallacy" title="Animistic fallacy">Animistic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Furtive_fallacy" title="Furtive fallacy">Furtive</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Correlation implies causation

<li><a href="Gambler's_fallacy" title="Gambler's fallacy">Gambler's</a>

<ul><li><a href="Inverse_gambler's_fallacy" title="Inverse gambler's fallacy">Inverse</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Regression_fallacy" title="Regression fallacy">Regression</a></li>

<li><a href="Fallacy_of_the_single_cause" title="Fallacy of the single cause">Single cause</a></li>

<li><a href="Slippery_slope" title="Slippery slope">Slippery slope</a></li>

<li><a href="Texas_sharpshooter_fallacy" title="Texas sharpshooter fallacy">Texas sharpshooter</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Appeals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Appeal_to_the_law" title="Appeal to the law">Law/Legality</a></li>

<li><a href="Appeal_to_the_stone" title="Appeal to the stone">Stone</a> / <a href="Proof_by_assertion" title="Proof by assertion">Proof by assertion</a></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Appeal_to_consequences" title="Appeal to consequences">Consequences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Argumentum_ad_baculum" title="Argumentum ad baculum">Argumentum ad baculum</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">Wishful thinking</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Appeal_to_emotion" title="Appeal to emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Think_of_the_children" title="Think of the children">Children</a></li>

<li><a href="Appeal_to_flattery" title="Appeal to flattery">Flattery</a></li>

<li><a href="Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a></li>

<li><a href="Appeal_to_ridicule" title="Appeal to ridicule">Ridicule</a></li>

<li><a href="In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group favoritism</a></li>

<li><a href="Invented_here" class="mw-redirect" title="Invented here">Invented here</a> / <a href="Not_invented_here" title="Not invented here">Not invented here</a></li>

<li><a href="Island_mentality" title="Island mentality">Island mentality</a></li>

<li><a href="Appeal_to_loyalty" title="Appeal to loyalty">Loyalty</a></li>

<li><a href="Parade_of_horribles" title="Parade of horribles">Parade of horribles</a></li>

<li><a href="Appeal_to_spite" class="mw-redirect" title="Appeal to spite">Spite</a></li>

<li><a href="Flag-waving" title="Flag-waving">Stirring symbols</a></li>

<li><a href="Wisdom_of_repugnance" title="Wisdom of repugnance">Wisdom of repugnance</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Genetic_fallacy" title="Genetic fallacy">Genetic fallacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Ad_hominem18" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="Ad_hominem" title="Ad hominem">Ad hominem</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Appeal_to_motive" title="Appeal to motive">Appeal to motive</a></li>

<li><a href="Association_fallacy" title="Association fallacy">Association</a>

<ul><li><i><a href="Reductio_ad_Hitlerum" title="Reductio ad Hitlerum">Reductio ad Hitlerum</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Red-baiting" title="Red-baiting">Reductio ad Stalinum</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Bulverism" title="Bulverism">Bulverism</a></li>

<li><a href="Poisoning_the_well" title="Poisoning the well">Poisoning the well</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Tu_quoque" title="Tu quoque">Tu quoque</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Whataboutism" title="Whataboutism">Whataboutism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Argument_from_authority" title="Argument from authority">Authority</a>

<ul><li><a href="Appeal_to_accomplishment" title="Appeal to accomplishment">Accomplishment</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Ipse_dixit" title="Ipse dixit">Ipse dixit</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Argumentum_ad_lazarum" title="Argumentum ad lazarum">Poverty</a> / <a href="Argumentum_ad_crumenam" title="Argumentum ad crumenam">Wealth</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Etymological_fallacy" title="Etymological fallacy">Etymology</a></li>

<li><a href="Appeal_to_nature" title="Appeal to nature">Nature</a></li>

<li><a href="Appeal_to_tradition" title="Appeal to tradition">Tradition</a> / <a href="Appeal_to_novelty" title="Appeal to novelty">Novelty</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chronological_snobbery" title="Chronological snobbery">Chronological snobbery</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="Fallacy_of_relevance" class="mw-redirect" title="Fallacy of relevance">fallacies<br> of relevance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Arguments13" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Argument" title="Argument">Arguments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Ad_nauseam" title="Ad nauseam">Ad nauseam</a></i>

<ul><li><a href="Sealioning" title="Sealioning">Sealioning</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_anecdote" title="Argument from anecdote">Argument from anecdote</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_from_silence" title="Argument from silence">Argument from silence</a></li>

<li><a href="Argument_to_moderation" title="Argument to moderation">Argument to moderation</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Clich%C3%A9" title="Cliché">Cliché</a></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Four_Great_Errors" title="The Four Great Errors">The Four Great Errors</a></i></li>

<li><a href="I'm_entitled_to_my_opinion" title="I'm entitled to my opinion">I'm entitled to my opinion</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Irrelevant_conclusion" title="Irrelevant conclusion">Ignoratio elenchi</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Invincible_ignorance_fallacy" title="Invincible ignorance fallacy">Invincible ignorance</a></li>

<li><a href="Moralistic_fallacy" title="Moralistic fallacy">Moralistic</a> / <a href="Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">Naturalistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Motte-and-bailey_fallacy" title="Motte-and-bailey fallacy">Motte-and-bailey fallacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychologist's_fallacy" title="Psychologist's fallacy">Psychologist's fallacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Rationalization_(psychology)" title="Rationalization (psychology)">Rationalization</a></li>

<li><a href="Red_herring" title="Red herring">Red herring</a>

<ul><li><a href="Two_wrongs_make_a_right" class="mw-redirect" title="Two wrongs make a right">Two wrongs make a right</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Special_pleading" title="Special pleading">Special pleading</a></li>

<li><a href="Straw_man" title="Straw man">Straw man</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-05-18" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Fallacy_of_composition&oldid=1290986734">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>